Chemical analysis of organic residues in 17th century clay pipes from the Cape Fort

Chemical analysis of organic residues in 17^th century clay pipes
from the Cape Fort, South Africa.

J.F. Thackeray (Transvaal Museum), G. Abrahams-Willis (Iziko Museums, Cape Town),R. Toms (Transvaal Museum), T.A. van der Merwe (Forensic Science Laboratory, S.A.P.S.),P.
Knox-Shaw (P.O. Box 124, Elgin 7180).

September, 2002

Analyses of organic residues from 17^th century clay pipes from England, including pipe fragments from Shakespeares home town of Stratford-upon-Avon, indicated that a variety of substances was being smoked in addition to Nicotiana, so-called "American tobacco" (Thackeray et al, 2001). Compounds that were found in a set of 24 pipe fragments included nicotine (as expected for artefacts that had been classified as "tobacco pipes", associated with the smoking of Nicotiana introduced to England from North America), camphor, borneol (from Borneo), cinnamaldehyde (possibly derived from Cassia fistula from India), vanillin, isopropyl myristate and myristic acid (possibly but not conclusively associated with nutmeg which belongs to the plant family Myristicaceae), cocaine (from the Erythroxylon plant known from Peru, South America), butylquinone and quinoline (probably derived from the Cinchona plant, also from Peru), and suggestive evidence of Cannabis (originally from Asia).

The results of the pilot study of 17^th century pipe fragments from England suggest that smokers were experimenting with substances from Asia, North America and South America during the so-called "spice trade". Exotic substances were introduced to Europe by sea-faring explorers, including those who traveled from Holland and England around the "Cape of Good Hope" in South Africa to reach India, or by ship to the eastern shores of North America, and around the southern tip of South America to reach Peru and other regions of South America. Of interest in this study is the analysis of 17^th century clay pipes that were smoked by Dutch colonists stationed at the Cape Fort, built soon after Jan van Riebeeck settled in Cape Town which was used as a victualing base for traders traveling to and from India.

Residues from two clay pipes excavated from the Cape Fort, catalogued as AR 83/10 NWJ 36.1.154 and AR 83/10 NWJ 36.1.503, were treated in 5 ml chloroform to extract organic compounds which were subsequently concentrated in 0.2 ml solvent and analysed by GCMS (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry), as described previously (Thackeray et al, 2001).

Pipe bowl AR 83/10 NWJ 36.1.154 dates to a time period 1640-1650. This date is based on the manufacturers mark (RW) at the base of the pipe bowl. The initials RW refer to Roger Wilkins. It is almost identical in form to 17^th century pipe bowls from Stratford-upon-Avon. Specimen AR 83/10 NWJ 36.1.503 is a pipe which is more recent, associated with a manufacturers mark EB. The following results were obtained.

Pipe bowl AR 83/10 NWJ 36.1.154: Camphor, isopropyl ester of lauric acid, isopropyl myristate

Pipe bowl AR 83/10 NW 36.1.503: Camphor, borneol, myristic acid, isopropyl myristate

Of interest is that camphor, borneol, isopropyl myristate, and myristic acid have previously been found in 17^th century English pipes. Notably, borneol occurs in Dryobalanops aromatica from Borneo. Dutch and English explorers could have obtained this plant in the course of exploration by the Dutch East Indian Company and the British counterpart. Samuel Purchas (1625) recommended camphor from Borneo, but until chemical analyses were undertaken there was no evidence that it was smoked in pipes.

One possibility is that camphor was used to offset the smell of tobacco (Thackeray et al, 2001). An alternative is that it was used on account of its mind-altering properties, of the kind reported in the Merck Index (1996).

Myristicin is the hallucinogen found in nutmeg which was highly prized by English and Dutch explorers who obtained nutmeg seeds from almost inaccessible islands in the Moluccas off the southern mainland of Asia (Purchas, 1625, Milton, 1999). However, the source of myristic acid and isopropyl myristate in the Cape Fort samples is not certain.

Cannabis, known to be associated with creativity among writers and artists (Conrad, 1997; Bennett, 2001), and potentially identified with Shakespeares "Tenth Muse" or "source of inspiration" (Thackeray et al, 2001), has not been found in 17^th century pipe bowl samples from the Cape Fort. However, of special interest is the identification of lauric acid in pipe bowl sample AR 83/10 NWJ 36.1.154. Lauric acid may have been derived from the bay tree, Laurus nobilis, which was introduced to the Cape by Jan van Riebeeck. A connection between Laurus and poetry is reflected by the classical tradition of laurel leaves being used in a wreath worn by poets said to be inspired by the classical Muses. The title "poet laureate" also reflects this conceptual association. Robert Greene (1560 - 1592, a contemporary of Shakespeare) referred to "a poets garland made of bays".

Lauric acid may be derived from sources other than Laurus nobilis. Camphor itself is a form of laurel, and its crystalline form is a volatile aromatic substance. There is no historical evidence for the smoking of Laurus nobilis, but this possibility is indicated from the forensic analysis of 17^th century clay pipes. However it is worth mentioning that in recent times, Khoisan people smoked leaves of Tarchonanthus ("the camphor tree"), together with tobacco. This has been documented by Martin Pickford (personal communication to F. Thackeray), who noted that the leaves of the "camphor tree" were smoked apparently because it provided a pleasant odour.

We recommend that further analyses be undertaken on 17^th century clay pipes, not only those from Dutch settlements in South Africa, but also others from sites in Holland and England. We also recommend the analysis of so-called "Bushman" pipes which were smoked at the time of European contact, and earlier.

Figure: Pipe bowls excavated from the Fort established in the 17^th century in Cape Town. Copyright, South African Cultural History Museum; photograph by R. Toms.